Composite Types

Composite types allow composing simpler types into more complex types, i.e., they allow the composition of multiple values into one. Composite types have a name and consist of zero or more named fields, and zero or more functions that operate on the data. Each field may have a different type.

Composite types can only be declared within a contract and nowhere else.

There are two kinds of composite types. The kinds differ in their usage and the behaviour when a value is used as the initial value for a constant or variable, when the value is assigned to a variable, when the value is passed as an argument to a function, and when the value is returned from a function:

Structures are copied, they are value types.
Structures are useful when copies with independent state are desired.
Resources are moved, they are linear types and must be used exactly once.
Resources are useful when it is desired to model ownership (a value exists exactly in one location and it should not be lost).
Certain constructs in a blockchain represent assets of real, tangible value, as much as a house or car or bank account. We have to worry about literal loss and theft, perhaps even on the scale of millions of dollars.
Structures are not an ideal way to represent this ownership because they are copied. This would mean that there could be a risk of having multiple copies of certain assets floating around, which breaks the scarcity requirements needed for these assets to have real value.
A structure is much more useful for representing information that can be grouped together in a logical way, but doesn't have value or a need to be able to be owned or transferred.
A structure could for example be used to contain the information associated with a division of a company, but a resource would be used to represent the assets that have been allocated to that organization for spending.

Nesting of resources is only allowed within other resource types, or in data structures like arrays and dictionaries, but not in structures, as that would allow resources to be copied.

Composite Type Declaration and Creation

Structures are declared using the struct keyword and resources are declared using the resource keyword. The keyword is followed by the name.

pub struct SomeStruct {
    // ...
}

pub resource SomeResource {
    // ...
}

Structures and resources are types.

Structures are created (instantiated) by calling the type like a function.

// instantiate a new struct object and assign it to a constant
let a = SomeStruct()

The constructor function may require parameters if the initializer of the composite type requires them.

Composite types can only be declared within contracts and not locally in functions. They can also not be nested.

Resource must be created (instantiated) by using the create keyword and calling the type like a function.

Resources can only be created in functions and types that are declared in the same contract in which the resource is declared.

// instantiate a new resource object and assign it to a constant
let b <- create SomeResource()

Composite Type Fields

Fields are declared like variables and constants. However, the initial values for fields are set in the initializer, not in the field declaration. All fields must be initialized in the initializer, exactly once.

Having to provide initial values in the initializer might seem restrictive, but this ensures that all fields are always initialized in one location, the initializer, and the initialization order is clear.

The initialization of all fields is checked statically and it is invalid to not initialize all fields in the initializer. Also, it is statically checked that a field is definitely initialized before it is used.

The initializer's main purpose is to initialize fields, though it may also contain other code. Just like a function, it may declare parameters and may contain arbitrary code. However, it has no return type, i.e., it is always Void.

The initializer is declared using the init keyword.

The initializer always follows any fields.

There are three kinds of fields:

Constant fields are also stored in the composite value, but after they have been initialized with a value they cannot have new values assigned to them afterwards. A constant field must be initialized exactly once.
Constant fields are declared using the let keyword.
Variable fields are stored in the composite value and can have new values assigned to them.
Variable fields are declared using the var keyword.
Synthetic fields are not stored in the composite value, i.e. they are derived/computed from other values. They can have new values assigned to them.
Synthetic fields are declared using the synthetic keyword.
Synthetic fields must have a getter and a setter. Getters and setters are explained in the next section. Synthetic fields are explained in a separate section.

Field Kind	Stored in memory	Assignable	Keyword
Variable field	Yes	Yes	`var`
Constant field	Yes	No	`let`
Synthetic field	No	Yes	`synthetic`

In initializers, the special constant self refers to the composite value that is to be initialized.

Field types must be storable. Non-storable types are:

Functions
Accounts (AuthAccount / PublicAccount)
Transactions
References: References are ephemeral. Consider storing a capability and borrowing it when needed instead.

Fields can be read (if they are constant or variable) and set (if they are variable), using the access syntax: the composite value is followed by a dot (.) and the name of the field.

// Declare a structure named `Token`, which has a constant field
// named `id` and a variable field named `balance`.
//
// Both fields are initialized through the initializer.
//
// The public access modifier `pub` is used in this example to allow
// the fields to be read in outer scopes. Fields can also be declared
// private so they cannot be accessed in outer scopes.
// Access control will be explained in a later section.
//
pub struct Token {
    pub let id: Int
    pub var balance: Int

    init(id: Int, balance: Int) {
        self.id = id
        self.balance = balance
    }
}

Note that it is invalid to provide the initial value for a field in the field declaration.

pub struct StructureWithConstantField {
    // Invalid: It is invalid to provide an initial value in the field declaration.
    // The field must be initialized by setting the initial value in the initializer.
    //
    pub let id: Int = 1
}

The field access syntax must be used to access fields – fields are not available as variables.

pub struct Token {
    pub let id: Int

    init(initialID: Int) {
        // Invalid: There is no variable with the name `id` available.
        // The field `id` must be initialized by setting `self.id`.
        //
        id = initialID
    }
}

The initializer is not automatically derived from the fields, it must be explicitly declared.

pub struct Token {
    pub let id: Int

    // Invalid: Missing initializer initializing field `id`.
}

A composite value can be created by calling the constructor and providing the field values as arguments.

The value's fields can be accessed on the object after it is created.

let token = Token(id: 42, balance: 1_000_00)

token.id  // is `42`
token.balance  // is `1_000_000`

token.balance = 1
// `token.balance` is `1`

// Invalid: assignment to constant field
//
token.id = 23

Resource Owner

Resources have the implicit field let owner: PublicAccount?. If the resource is currently stored in an account, then the field contains the publicly accessible portion of the account. Otherwise the field is nil.

The field's value changes when the resource is moved from outside account storage into account storage, when it is moved from the storage of one account to the storage of another account, and when it is moved out of account storage.

Composite Data Initializer Overloading

🚧 Status: Initializer overloading is not implemented yet.

Initializers support overloading. This allows for example providing default values for certain parameters.

// Declare a structure named `Token`, which has a constant field
// named `id` and a variable field named `balance`.
//
// The first initializer allows initializing both fields with a given value.
//
// A second initializer is provided for convenience to initialize the `id` field
// with a given value, and the `balance` field with the default value `0`.
//
pub struct Token {
    let id: Int
    var balance: Int

    init(id: Int, balance: Int) {
        self.id = id
        self.balance = balance
    }

    init(id: Int) {
        self.id = id
        self.balance = 0
    }
}

Composite Type Field Getters and Setters

🚧 Status: Field getters and setters are not implemented yet.

Fields may have an optional getter and an optional setter. Getters are functions that are called when a field is read, and setters are functions that are called when a field is written. Only certain assignments are allowed in getters and setters.

Getters and setters are enclosed in opening and closing braces, after the field's type.

Getters are declared using the get keyword. Getters have no parameters and their return type is implicitly the type of the field.

pub struct GetterExample {

    // Declare a variable field named `balance` with a getter
    // which ensures the read value is always non-negative.
    //
    pub var balance: Int {
        get {
           if self.balance < 0 {
               return 0
           }

           return self.balance
        }
    }

    init(balance: Int) {
        self.balance = balance
    }
}

let example = GetterExample(balance: 10)
// `example.balance` is `10`

example.balance = -50
// The stored value of the field `example` is `-50` internally,
// though `example.balance` is `0` because the getter for `balance` returns `0` instead.

Setters are declared using the set keyword, followed by the name for the new value enclosed in parentheses. The parameter has implicitly the type of the field. Another type cannot be specified. Setters have no return type.

The types of values assigned to setters must always match the field's type.

pub struct SetterExample {

    // Declare a variable field named `balance` with a setter
    // which requires written values to be positive.
    //
    pub var balance: Int {
        set(newBalance) {
            pre {
                newBalance >= 0
            }
            self.balance = newBalance
        }
    }

    init(balance: Int) {
        self.balance = balance
    }
}

let example = SetterExample(balance: 10)
// `example.balance` is `10`

// Run-time error: The precondition of the setter for the field `balance` fails,
// the program aborts.
//
example.balance = -50

Synthetic Composite Type Fields

🚧 Status: Synthetic fields are not implemented yet.

Fields which are not stored in the composite value are synthetic, i.e., the field value is computed. Synthetic can be either read-only, or readable and writable.

Synthetic fields are declared using the synthetic keyword.

Synthetic fields are read-only when only a getter is provided.

struct Rectangle {
    pub var width: Int
    pub var height: Int

    // Declare a synthetic field named `area`,
    // which computes the area based on the `width` and `height` fields.
    //
    pub synthetic area: Int {
        get {
            return width * height
        }
    }

    // Declare an initializer which accepts width and height.
    // As `area` is synthetic and there is only a getter provided for it,
    // the `area` field cannot be assigned a value.
    //
    init(width: Int, height: Int) {
        self.width = width
        self.height = height
    }
}

Synthetic fields are readable and writable when both a getter and a setter is declared.

// Declare a struct named `GoalTracker` which stores a number
// of target goals, a number of completed goals,
// and has a synthetic field to provide the left number of goals.
//
// NOTE: the tracker only implements some functionality to demonstrate
// synthetic fields, it is incomplete (e.g. assignments to `goal` are not handled properly).
//
pub struct GoalTracker {

    pub var goal: Int
    pub var completed: Int

    // Declare a synthetic field which is both readable and writable.
    //
    // When the field is read from (in the getter), the number
    // of left goals is computed from the target number of goals
    // and the completed number of goals.
    //
    // When the field is written to (in the setter), the number
    // of completed goals is updated, based on the number
    // of target goals and the new remaining number of goals.
    //
    pub synthetic left: Int {
        get {
            return self.goal - self.completed
        }

        set(newLeft) {
            self.completed = self.goal - newLeft
        }
    }

    init(goal: Int, completed: Int) {
        self.goal = goal
        self.completed = completed
    }
}

let tracker = GoalTracker(goal: 10, completed: 0)
// `tracker.goal` is `10`
// `tracker.completed` is `0`
// `tracker.left` is `10`

tracker.completed = 1
// `tracker.left` is `9`

tracker.left = 8
// `tracker.completed` is `2`

It is invalid to declare a synthetic field with only a setter.

Composite Type Functions

🚧 Status: Function overloading is not implemented yet.

Composite types may contain functions. Just like in the initializer, the special constant self refers to the composite value that the function is called on.

// Declare a structure named "Rectangle", which represents a rectangle
// and has variable fields for the width and height.
//
pub struct Rectangle {
    pub var width: Int
    pub var height: Int

    init(width: Int, height: Int) {
        self.width = width
        self.height = height
    }

    // Declare a function named "scale", which scales
    // the rectangle by the given factor.
    //
    pub fun scale(factor: Int) {
        self.width = self.width * factor
        self.height = self.height * factor
    }
}

let rectangle = Rectangle(width: 2, height: 3)
rectangle.scale(factor: 4)
// `rectangle.width` is `8`
// `rectangle.height` is `12`

Functions support overloading.

// Declare a structure named "Rectangle", which represents a rectangle
// and has variable fields for the width and height.
//
pub struct Rectangle {
    pub var width: Int
    pub var height: Int

    init(width: Int, height: Int) {
        self.width = width
        self.height = height
    }

    // Declare a function named "scale", which independently scales
    // the width by a given factor and the height by a given factor.
    //
    pub fun scale(widthFactor: Int, heightFactor: Int) {
        self.width = self.width * widthFactor
        self.height = self.height * heightFactor
    }

    // Declare another function also named "scale", which scales
    // both width and height by a given factor.
    // The function calls the `scale` function declared above.
    //
    pub fun scale(factor: Int) {
        self.scale(
            widthFactor: factor,
            heightFactor: factor
        )
    }
}

Composite Type Subtyping

Two composite types are compatible if and only if they refer to the same declaration by name, i.e., nominal typing applies instead of structural typing.

Even if two composite types declare the same fields and functions, the types are only compatible if their names match.

// Declare a structure named `A` which has a function `test`
// which has type `((): Void)`.
//
struct A {
    fun test() {}
}

// Declare a structure named `B` which has a function `test`
// which has type `((): Void)`.
//
struct B {
    fun test() {}
}

// Declare a variable named which accepts values of type `A`.
//
var something: A = A()

// Invalid: Assign a value of type `B` to the variable.
// Even though types `A` and `B` have the same declarations,
// a function with the same name and type, the types' names differ,
// so they are not compatible.
//
something = B()

// Valid: Reassign a new value of type `A`.
//
something = A()

Composite Type Behaviour

Structures

Structures are copied when used as an initial value for constant or variable, when assigned to a different variable, when passed as an argument to a function, and when returned from a function.

Accessing a field or calling a function of a structure does not copy it.

// Declare a structure named `SomeStruct`, with a variable integer field.
//
pub struct SomeStruct {
    pub var value: Int

    init(value: Int) {
        self.value = value
    }

    fun increment() {
        self.value = self.value + 1
    }
}

// Declare a constant with value of structure type `SomeStruct`.
//
let a = SomeStruct(value: 0)

// *Copy* the structure value into a new constant.
//
let b = a

b.value = 1
// NOTE: `b.value` is 1, `a.value` is *`0`*

b.increment()
// `b.value` is 2, `a.value` is `0`

Accessing Fields and Functions of Composite Types Using Optional Chaining

If a composite type with fields and functions is wrapped in an optional, optional chaining can be used to get those values or call the function without having to get the value of the optional first.

Optional chaining is used by adding a ? before the . access operator for fields or functions of an optional composite type.

When getting a field value or calling a function with a return value, the access returns the value as an optional. If the object doesn't exist, the value will always be nil

When calling a function on an optional like this, if the object doesn't exist, nothing will happen and the execution will continue.

It is still invalid to access an undeclared field of an optional composite type.

// Declare a struct with a field and method.
pub struct Value {
    pub var number: Int

    init() {
        self.number = 2
    }

    pub fun set(new: Int) {
        self.number = new
    }

    pub fun setAndReturn(new: Int): Int {
        self.number = new
        return new
    }
}

// Create a new instance of the struct as an optional
let value: Value? = Value()
// Create another optional with the same type, but nil
let noValue: Value? = nil

// Access the `number` field using optional chaining
let twoOpt = value?.number
// Because `value` is an optional, `twoOpt` has type `Int?`
let two = zeroOpt ?? 0
// `two` is `2`

// Try to access the `number` field of `noValue`, which has type `Value?`
// This still returns an `Int?`
let nilValue = noValue?.number
// This time, since `noValue` is `nil`, `nilValue` will also be `nil`

// Call the `set` function of the struct
// whether or not the object exists, this will not fail
value?.set(new: 4)
noValue?.set(new: 4)

// Call the `setAndReturn` function, which returns an `Int`
// Because `value` is an optional, the return value is type `Int?`
let sixOpt = value?.setAndReturn(new: 6)
let six = sixOpt ?? 0
// `six` is `6`

This is also possible by using the force-unwrap operator (!).

Forced-Optional chaining is used by adding a ! before the . access operator for fields or functions of an optional composite type.

When getting a field value or calling a function with a return value, the access returns the value. If the object doesn't exist, the execution will panic and revert.

It is still invalid to access an undeclared field of an optional composite type.

// Declare a struct with a field and method.
pub struct Value {
    pub var number: Int

    init() {
        self.number = 2
    }

    pub fun set(new: Int) {
        self.number = new
    }

    pub fun setAndReturn(new: Int): Int {
        self.number = new
        return new
    }
}

// Create a new instance of the struct as an optional
let value: Value? = Value()
// Create another optional with the same type, but nil
let noValue: Value? = nil

// Access the `number` field using force-optional chaining
let two = value!.number
// `two` is `2`

// Try to access the `number` field of `noValue`, which has type `Value?`
// Run-time error: This time, since `noValue` is `nil`,
// the program execution will revert
let number = noValue!.number

// Call the `set` function of the struct

// This succeeds and sets the value to 4
value!.set(new: 4)

// Run-time error: Since `noValue` is nil, the value is not set
// and the program execution reverts.
noValue!.set(new: 4)

// Call the `setAndReturn` function, which returns an `Int`
// Because we use force-unwrap before calling the function,
// the return value is type `Int`
let six = value!.setAndReturn(new: 6)
// `six` is `6`

Resources

Resources are types that can only exist in one location at a time and must be used exactly once.

Resources must be created (instantiated) by using the create keyword.

At the end of a function which has resources (variables, constants, parameters) in scope, the resources must be either moved or destroyed.

They are moved when used as an initial value for a constant or variable, when assigned to a different variable, when passed as an argument to a function, and when returned from a function.

Resources can be explicitly destroyed using the destroy keyword.

Accessing a field or calling a function of a resource does not move or destroy it.

When the resource is moved, the constant or variable that referred to the resource before the move becomes invalid. An invalid resource cannot be used again.

To make the usage and behaviour of resource types explicit, the prefix @ must be used in type annotations of variable or constant declarations, parameters, and return types.

To make moves of resources explicit, the move operator <- must be used when the resource is the initial value of a constant or variable, when it is moved to a different variable, when it is moved to a function as an argument, and when it is returned from a function.

// Declare a resource named `SomeResource`, with a variable integer field.
//
pub resource SomeResource {
    pub var value: Int

    init(value: Int) {
        self.value = value
    }
}

// Declare a constant with value of resource type `SomeResource`.
//
let a: @SomeResource <- create SomeResource(value: 0)

// *Move* the resource value to a new constant.
//
let b <- a

// Invalid: Cannot use constant `a` anymore as the resource that it referred to
// was moved to constant `b`.
//
a.value

// Constant `b` owns the resource.
//
b.value // equals 0

// Declare a function which accepts a resource.
//
// The parameter has a resource type, so the type annotation must be prefixed with `@`.
//
pub fun use(resource: @SomeResource) {
    // ...
}

// Call function `use` and move the resource into it.
//
use(resource: <-b)

// Invalid: Cannot use constant `b` anymore as the resource
// it referred to was moved into function `use`.
//
b.value

A resource object cannot go out of scope and be dynamically lost. The program must either explicitly destroy it or move it to another context.

{
    // Declare another, unrelated value of resource type `SomeResource`.
    //
    let c <- create SomeResource(value: 10)

    // Invalid: `c` is not used before the end of the scope, but must be.
    // It cannot be lost.
}

// Declare another, unrelated value of resource type `SomeResource`.
//
let d <- create SomeResource(value: 20)

// Destroy the resource referred to by constant `d`.
//
destroy d

// Invalid: Cannot use constant `d` anymore as the resource
// it referred to was destroyed.
//
d.value

To make it explicit that the type is a resource type and must follow the rules associated with resources, it must be prefixed with @ in all type annotations, e.g. for variable declarations, parameters, or return types.

// Declare a constant with an explicit type annotation.
//
// The constant has a resource type, so the type annotation must be prefixed with `@`.
//
let someResource: @SomeResource <- create SomeResource(value: 5)

// Declare a function which consumes a resource and destroys it.
//
// The parameter has a resource type, so the type annotation must be prefixed with `@`.
//
pub fun use(resource: @SomeResource) {
    destroy resource
}

// Declare a function which returns a resource.
//
// The return type is a resource type, so the type annotation must be prefixed with `@`.
// The return statement must also use the `<-` operator to make it explicit the resource is moved.
//
pub fun get(): @SomeResource {
    let newResource <- create SomeResource()
    return <-newResource
}

Resources must be used exactly once.

// Declare a function which consumes a resource but does not use it.
// This function is invalid, because it would cause a loss of the resource.
//
pub fun forgetToUse(resource: @SomeResource) {
    // Invalid: The resource parameter `resource` is not used, but must be.
}

// Declare a constant named `res` which has the resource type `SomeResource`.
let res <- create SomeResource()

// Call the function `use` and move the resource `res` into it.
use(resource: <-res)

// Invalid: The resource constant `res` cannot be used again,
// as it was moved in the previous function call.
//
use(resource: <-res)

// Invalid: The resource constant `res` cannot be used again,
// as it was moved in the previous function call.
//
res.value

// Declare a function which has a resource parameter.
// This function is invalid, because it does not always use the resource parameter,
// which would cause a loss of the resource.
//
pub fun sometimesDestroy(resource: @SomeResource, destroy: Bool) {
    if destroyResource {
        destroy resource
    }
    // Invalid: The resource parameter `resource` is not always used, but must be.
    // The destroy statement is not always executed, so at the end of this function
    // it might have been destroyed or not.
}

// Declare a function which has a resource parameter.
// This function is valid, as it always uses the resource parameter,
// and does not cause a loss of the resource.
//
pub fun alwaysUse(resource: @SomeResource, destroyResource: Bool) {
    if destroyResource {
        destroy resource
    } else {
        use(resource: <-resource)
    }
    // At the end of the function the resource parameter was definitely used:
    // It was either destroyed or moved in the call of function `use`.
}

// Declare a function which has a resource parameter.
// This function is invalid, because it does not always use the resource parameter,
// which would cause a loss of the resource.
//
pub fun returnBeforeDestroy(move: Bool) {
    let res <- create SomeResource(value: 1)
    if move {
        use(resource: <-res)
        return
    } else {
        // Invalid: When this function returns here, the resource variable
        // `res` was not used, but must be.
        return
    }
    // Invalid: the resource variable `res` was potentially moved in the
    // previous if-statement, and both branches definitely return,
    // so this statement is unreachable.
    destroy res
}

Resource Variables

Resource variables cannot be assigned to, as that would lead to the loss of the variable's current resource value.

Instead, use a swap statement (<->) or shift statement (<- target <-) to replace the resource variable with another resource.

pub resource R {}

var x <- create R()
var y <- create R()

// Invalid: Cannot assign to resource variable `x`,
// as its current resource would be lost
//
x <- y

// Instead, use a swap statement.
//
var replacement <- create R()
x <-> replacement
// `x` is the new resource.
// `replacement` is the old resource.

// Or use the shift statement (`<- target <-`)
// This statement moves the resource out of `x` and into `oldX`,
// and at the same time assigns `x` with the new value on the right-hand side.
let oldX <- x <- create R()
// oldX still needs to be explicitly handled after this statement
destroy oldX

Resource Destructors

Resource may have a destructor, which is executed when the resource is destroyed. Destructors have no parameters and no return value and are declared using the destroy name. A resource may have only one destructor.

var destructorCalled = false

pub resource Resource {

    // Declare a destructor for the resource, which is executed
    // when the resource is destroyed.
    //
    destroy() {
        destructorCalled = true
    }
}

let res <- create Resource()
destroy res
// `destructorCalled` is `true`

Nested Resources

Fields in composite types behave differently when they have a resource type.

If a resource type has fields that have a resource type, it must declare a destructor, which must invalidate all resource fields, i.e. move or destroy them.

pub resource Child {
    let name: String

    init(name: String)
        self.name = name
    }
}

// Declare a resource with a resource field named `child`.
// The resource *must* declare a destructor
// and the destructor *must* invalidate the resource field.
//
pub resource Parent {
    let name: String
    var child: @Child

    init(name: String, child: @Child) {
        self.name = name
        self.child <- child
    }

    // Declare a destructor which invalidates the resource field
    // `child` by destroying it.
    //
    destroy() {
        destroy self.child
    }
}

Accessing a field or calling function on a resource field is valid, however moving a resource out of a variable resource field is not allowed. Instead, use a swap statement to replace the resource with another resource.

let child <- create Child(name: "Child 1")
let parent <- create Parent(name: "Parent", child: <-child)

child.name  // is "Child 1"
parent.child.name  // is "Child 1"

// Invalid: Cannot move resource out of variable resource field.
let childAgain <- parent.child

// Instead, use a swap statement.
//
var otherChild <- create Child(name: "Child 2")
parent.child <-> otherChild
// `parent.child` is the second child, Child 2.
// `otherChild` is the first child, Child 1.

Resources in Closures

Resources can not be captured in closures, as that could potentially result in duplications.

resource R {}

// Invalid: Declare a function which returns a closure which refers to
// the resource parameter `resource`. Each call to the returned function
// would return the resource, which should not be possible.
//
fun makeCloner(resource: @R): ((): @R) {
    return fun (): @R {
        return <-resource
    }
}

let test = makeCloner(resource: <-create R())

Resources in Arrays and Dictionaries

Arrays and dictionaries behave differently when they contain resources: It is not allowed to index into an array to read an element at a certain index or assign to it, or index into a dictionary to read a value for a certain key or set a value for the key.

Instead, use a swap statement (<->) or shift statement (<- target <-) to replace the accessed resource with another resource.

resource R {}

// Declare a constant for an array of resources.
// Create two resources and move them into the array.
//
let resources <- [
    <-create R(),
    <-create R()
]

// Invalid: Reading an element from a resource array is not allowed.
//
let firstResource <- resources[0]

// Invalid: Setting an element in a resource array is not allowed,
// as it would result in the loss of the current value.
//
resources[0] <- create R()

// Instead, when attempting to either read an element or update an element
// in a resource array, use a swap statement with a variable to replace
// the accessed element.
//
var res <- create R()
resources[0] <-> res
// `resources[0]` now contains the new resource.
// `res` now contains the old resource.

// Use the shift statement to move the new resource into
// the array at the same time that the old resource is being moved out
let oldRes <- resources[0] <- create R()
// The old object still needs to be handled
destroy oldRes

The same applies to dictionaries.

// Declare a constant for a dictionary of resources.
// Create two resources and move them into the dictionary.
//
let resources <- {
    "r1": <-create R(),
    "r2": <-create R()
}

// Invalid: Reading an element from a resource dictionary is not allowed.
// It's not obvious that an access like this would have to remove
// the key from the dictionary.
//
let firstResource <- resources["r1"]

// Instead, make the removal explicit by using the `remove` function.
let firstResource <- resources.remove(key: "r1")

// Invalid: Setting an element in a resource dictionary is not allowed,
// as it would result in the loss of the current value.
//
resources["r1"] <- create R()

// Instead, when attempting to either read an element or update an element
// in a resource dictionary, use a swap statement with a variable to replace
// the accessed element.
//
var res <- create R()
resources["r1"] <-> res
// `resources["r1"]` now contains the new resource.
// `res` now contains the old resource.

// Use the shift statement to move the new resource into
// the dictionary at the same time that the old resource is being moved out
let oldRes <- resources["r2"] <- create R()
// The old object still needs to be handled
destroy oldRes

Resources cannot be moved into arrays and dictionaries multiple times, as that would cause a duplication.

let resource <- create R()

// Invalid: The resource variable `resource` can only be moved into the array once.
//
let resources <- [
    <-resource,
    <-resource
]

let resource <- create R()

// Invalid: The resource variable `resource` can only be moved into the dictionary once.
let resources <- {
    "res1": <-resource,
    "res2": <-resource
}

Resource arrays and dictionaries can be destroyed.

let resources <- [
    <-create R(),
    <-create R()
]
destroy resources

let resources <- {
    "r1": <-create R(),
    "r2": <-create R()
}
destroy resources

The variable array functions like append, insert, and remove behave like for non-resource arrays. Note however, that the result of the remove functions must be used.

let resources <- [<-create R()]
// `resources.length` is `1`

resources.append(<-create R())
// `resources.length` is `2`

let first <- resource.remove(at: 0)
// `resources.length` is `1`
destroy first

resources.insert(at: 0, <-create R())
// `resources.length` is `2`

// Invalid: The statement ignores the result of the call to `remove`,
// which would result in a loss.
resource.remove(at: 0)

destroy resources

The variable array function contains is not available, as it is impossible: If the resource can be passed to the contains function, it is by definition not in the array.

The variable array function concat is not available, as it would result in the duplication of resources.

The dictionary functions like insert and remove behave like for non-resource dictionaries. Note however, that the result of these functions must be used.

let resources <- {"r1": <-create R()}
// `resources.length` is `1`

let first <- resource.remove(key: "r1")
// `resources.length` is `0`
destroy first

let old <- resources.insert(key: "r1", <-create R())
// `old` is nil, as there was no value for the key "r1"
// `resources.length` is `1`

let old2 <- resources.insert(key: "r1", <-create R())
// `old2` is the old value for the key "r1"
// `resources.length` is `2`

destroy old
destroy old2
destroy resources

Resource Identifier

Resources have an implicit unique identifier associated with them, implemented by a predeclared public field let uuid: UInt64 on each resource.

This identifier will be automatically set when the resource is created, and will be unique even after the resource is destroyed, i.e. no two resources will ever have the same identifier.

// Declare a resource without any fields.
resource R {}

// Create two resources
let r1 <- create R()
let r2 <- create R()

// Get each resource's unique identifier
let id1 = r1.uuid
let id2 = r2.uuid

// Destroy the first resource
destroy r1

// Create a third resource
let r3 <- create R()

let id3 = r3.uuid

id1 != id2  // true
id2 != id3  // true
id3 != id1  // true

The details of how the identifiers are generated is an implementation detail.

Do not rely on or assume any particular behaviour in Cadence programs.

Unbound References / Nulls

There is no support for null.

Inheritance and Abstract Types

There is no support for inheritance. Inheritance is a feature common in other programming languages, that allows including the fields and functions of one type in another type.

Instead, follow the "composition over inheritance" principle, the idea of composing functionality from multiple individual parts, rather than building an inheritance tree.

Furthermore, there is also no support for abstract types. An abstract type is a feature common in other programming languages, that prevents creating values of the type and only allows the creation of values of a subtype. In addition, abstract types may declare functions, but omit the implementation of them and instead require subtypes to implement them.

Instead, consider using interfaces.